Behavior, Development, and Society

In his sixth chapter of Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis, Freud focuses on the interpretation of cultural phenomena. Using analysis of the dream world as the basis of interpretation, he suggests “We want something that is sought for in all scientific work – to understand the phenomena” (p. 129). In exploring phenomena, Freud’s writings seem wholly focused on the individual as a singular entity to explore through analysis. Nevertheless, Freud expounds upon the contradictory demands of the individual and society; the interpretation, translation, and analysis of cultural phenomena are associated with the clash between the individual and society.

Whereas Freud emphasizes the conflict between the interests of society and the demands of the individual, Parsons (1954) highlights that these elements are independent, as well as interactive with each other. In other words, the individual supports society, just as society supports the individual. With an emphasis on order and cohesion, Parsons, like Freud, also believes that social phenomena can be described, analyzed, and explained. Parsons’ four-factor model of social system dimensions – adaptation, goal attainment, pattern maintenance, integration – can be used as a model for analyzing any kind of relationship. In beginning to outline his concept of structural-functionalism, Parsons proposes a theory of social action, depicting human action as a system. This system is composed of four interdependent and interaction units making up “a body of logically interdependent generalized concepts of empirical reference” (p. 212): individual, personality, social system, and culture. In Parsons’ world, theory’s purpose is to facilitate description and analysis. By description, he refers to determining verifiable answers to all the scientifically important questions. By analysis, he refers to ensuring that the conceptual structure is delineated through propositions, or building larger concepts upon smaller ones.

Erikson’s (1997) “Major Stages of Psychosocial Development” illustrates Parsons’ concept of propositions, with one stage building upon another like a developmental ladder. Erikson provides an outline of his theoretical system, from infancy through old age, as the individual “gradually becoming what one has caused to be, one eventually will be what one has been” (p. 79). At first glance, the stages alone do not seem to take into account contextual variation among individuals. Yet, the fact that the stages are general and not stringently outlined, makes it more applicable to various contexts. Erikson’s framework of psychosocial development is particularly mindful of the cultural location of the developmental tasks and of the ways in which the natural movement through development may be distorted by external forces. As a powerful external force, armed conflict disrupts the developmental processes of the individual, family, and community. In particular, the role of caregivers is compromised, as they face increasing external demands that prioritize safety and survival. As a result, developmental needs of children are compromised and movement between stages is stalled.

Are the theoretical concepts of Freud, Parsons, and Erikson relevant today? In order to address issues of human development in today’s society, culture must be considered. All individuals are participants in cultural communities, engaging with others in shared endeavors and building upon cultural practices of previous generations. Human development is a process of participation in society, while society represents the culmination of various individuals interacting with others. External forces, such as global crises, create another contextual layer through which the individual must interact and contend with.

References:
Erikson, E. (1997). The Life Cycle Completed. New York, NY: W.W. Norton.
Freud, S. (1991). Introductory Lectures in Psychoanalysis. London, UK: Penguin Books.
Parsons, T. (1954). Essays in Sociological Theory. New York, NY: Macmillan Company.

Parental Education Program Improves Mental Health and Adjustment in Parents of Children with Autism

Research indicates that parents of children with autism experience a high level of stress. Parent training interventions reflect an attempt to address this stress and improve parental mental health. In Tonge et al.’s (2006) study, parents of preschool children recently diagnosed with autism were sampled from four geographically separate metropolitan and rural regional assessment services for young children suspected of having autism. The sample was assigned to either the intervention group (n=70) or control group (n=35). Parents from the intervention group were further randomly assigned to a parent education and behavior management (PEBM) group (n=35) or a parent education and counseling (PEC) group (n=35). Subjects were administered a questionnaire at pre-intervention, post-intervention, and six-month follow-up. Parental health was determined using the General Health Questionnaire, a widely-used reliable, and valid self-administered adult screening test designed to detect mental health issues in community settings. Results showed that both interventions improved the mental health and well-being of parents with children recently diagnosed with autism, especially among parents who had preexisting mental health problems. There were no statistically significant results supporting the superiority of either PEBM or PEC.

The authors anticipate several potential threats to validity, and attempt to minimize these threats through the study design. First, by sampling populations in geographically distant rural and urban communities, the investigators attempted to control cross-contamination of groups as a threat to validity. Second, the investigators made attempts to control for any threats to internal or construct validity by training therapists to strictly follow guidelines for the specific interventions and providing supervision and training to therapists throughout the study. Therapists also administered both treatments and were rotated between therapies. The investigators videotaped a random 10% of the intervention group for content review and intervention adherence. Third, the authors address timing of measurement as a potential threat to external validity by testing all subjects six months after the study. Consequently, results showed that alleviation of symptoms became more apparent over the long-term, reflecting a possible cumulative effect of treatment. Nevertheless, the study also exhibits limitations. By selecting samples from rural and urban communities, access to services may have created notable differences between the groups. Because parents were included in the study based on their children’s diagnosis, the group may exhibit wide variation in regards to mental health. This diversity of subject characteristics made it difficult for the investigators to determine a difference between groups. Overall, the study reveals promising findings about the effectiveness of parent training as an important element of interventions for children with autism.

Reference:
Tonge, B., Brereton, A., Kiomall, M., Mackinnon, A., King, N., and Rinehart, N. (2006). Effects of parental mental health of an education and skills training program for parents of young children with autism: A randomized control trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adoelscent Psychiatry, 45(5), 561-569.

Longitudinal Research Finds Sibling Relationships as Protective for Children Who Experience Stressful Life Events

Prior research indicates that children who experience stressful life events are at risk of developing emotional difficulties and displaying internalizing behavior, yet few studies have looked at the sibling relationship as a moderating factor against these risks. Furthermore, there is conflicting research examining the link between stressful life events and externalizing behaviors. The authors conducted a two-wave longitudinal study to determine the extent to which sibling relationship moderates risks in siblings experiencing stressful events. Data were gathered through the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), with a total of 196 families agreeing to participate after meeting the selection criteria. Interviews were conducted with families twice: first, at baseline and again, two years later. Interviews measured number and qualtity of stressful life events, quality of sibling relationship, quality of mother-child relationship, children’s externalizing and internalizing behaviors, socioeconomic status, age, and gender. The study found that positive sibling relationships positively influenced the relationship between stressful life events and internalizing symptomatology, but not the relationship between stressful life events and externalizing symptomatology. The study also found that the protective effect is not dependant upon the quality of the mother-child relationship.

This study is the first of its kind. No other study has examined if sibling relationships are protective for children who experience stressful life events. The choice of a longitudinal design was a strength, because the results are more likely to be attributed to a causal relationship between the positive sibling relationship and the amelioration of internalizing symptomatology. Also, the measures utilized the responses of multiple respondents, making a more accurate determination of scale. However, there may be plausible rival hypotheses due to variables that may not have been included in the research. Maturation may be a threat to internal validity, as children who are two years older might show improved internalizing behaviors. This study would have improved with the implementation of a control group of children who experience stressful events, but do not have a sibling. The control group would have evidenced that the protective effect of the sibling relationship is responsible for decreased internalizing behaviors.

Reference:
Gass, K., Jenkins, J., and Dunn, J. (2007). Are sibling relationships protective? A longitudinal study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48(2), 167-175.

Rethinking ECD

I had an interesting conversation with a colleague about the direction that the Early Childhood Development (ECD) community is heading, especially in light of increased emphasis on ECD in emergency settings. Because the roots of ECD are grounded in development, it is a difficult transition to examine the non-developmental aspects of ECD in emergencies. Yes, one of the most important issues affecting very young children in crisis-affected settings is the impact on their development (from stimulation, separation from caregiver, etc.) because this has such long-term implications for young children as they transition into adolescence and adulthood and even greater implications for the development of nations and future investments in populations. However, in emergencies, there should be an equal importance placed on safety and protection issues, such as addressing the fact that young children are disproportionately affected by natural disasters. It is necessary to rethink ECD through multiple lenses.